关于Manhattan逻辑的讲解有很多，当然大家不可能面面俱到，也不用记住全部，今天小编告诉大家的是一些逻辑中的关键内容，大家只要参照这个提纲稍作整理就行了。
Chap 1 Argument Structure
A premise is a piece of evidence (fact or claim) that supports the authors conclusion.
A (final) conclusion is the authors main claim.
An intermediate conclusion is both a conclusion and a premise; it supports the final conclusion.
Background information helps to set the context for an argument.
A counterpoint or counterpremise goes against the authors conclusion.
We can use these building blocks to understand the structure of an argument. Understanding the structure will help us to answer the question.
When we have more than one conclusion, we can use the Therefore Test to find the final conclusion. Either “A is true, THEREFORE B is true” or “B is true, THEREFORE A is true.”
Chap 2 Methodology
Our 4-step approach for all CR Questions is:
Step 1; Identify the question,
ü the question type tells us what kind of information we expect to find in the argument and what kind of reasoning help to answer the question
Step 2: Deconstruct the argument
ü break the argument down into its building blocks
ü take very abbreviated notes showing both the details and the “flow” of the information
Step 3: State the GoaL
ü very briefly articulate your goal based upon this question type
Step 4: Work from wrong to right
ü plan to go through the answers twice on the first pass, focus on eliminating anything that is definitely wrong; leave everything else in on the second pass, compare any choices that remain, then pick
Know how you’re going to keep track of your answers on your scrap paper. First, decide whether to have a separate ABCDE grid for each problem or whether to use the “write once per page” method described earlier in the chapter. Second, make sure you have four consistent symbols for these four labels: definitely wrong; maybe; I have no idea; and this is it!
Chap 3 Structure-based Family
Describe the Role Questions(R)
We recognize this question type by the boldface font in the argument and the use of the word “boldface” in the question stem. The question stem will also typically use the word “role” or a synonym. We will usually have two boldface statements, but sometimes there will be only one.
Our goal is to identify the specific role, or building block category, of each boldface statement. Our primary method involves splitting the building blocks into three categories:
ü C: The conclusion
ü P: A premise supporting the conclusion
ü X: Something other than C or P
If needed, we can also try a secondary method that will allow us to make an educated guess if we’re short on time or get stuck:
ü C: The conclusion
ü F: A fact
ü O: An opinion that is not the conclusion
The most tempting trap answers will be “off” by just one or two words, often at the end of the sentence or phrase. We have to read very carefully all the way to the end in order not to fall for this trap.
Describe the Argument Questions(DA)
We recognize this question type by the question stem (most commonly asking us how one person “responds” or “objects” to something that another person said), and by the “abstract” answer choices that address the role of the information (claim or conclusion, evidence or premise, and so on). We will be asked to address the role of a particular sentence or statement within the conversation (usually the respondent s statement, if there are two people talking).
Our goal is to identify the specific role played by the statement about which were asked. Most of the time, that role will have something to do with calling into question a premise, assumption, or conclusion made by the first person. That can be done by directly attacking what the first person said, or by introducing new information that undermines the first person s argument.
Chap 4 Assumptions
An assumption is something that the author must believe to be true in order to draw a certain conclusion; however, the author does not state the assumption in the argument. (more likely/ less likely)
Find the Assumption Questions(FA)
Most of the time, an FA question stem will contain some form of the word “assumption.” Occasionally, the question may ask for a new premise that is “required” to draw the conclusion or will help the conclusion to be “more properly drawn.” Ask if it have to be true in order to draw that conclusion.
The correct answer should make the argument stronger. Note one especially tricky aspect of these problems: the assumption itself might be flawed.
Our goal is to find the core (conclusion plus major premises) and brainstorm assumptions while laying out the core.
Correct answers will represent something that the author must believe to be true in order to draw his or her conclusion.
If we get stuck between two answers, we can try the Negation technique: negate each answer and see whether doing so weakens the conclusion; the one that weakens the conclusion is the right answer.
Trap answer types include:
ü Out of Scope: goes beyond the scope of the argument, doesn’t address or affect the conclusion
ü Reverse Logic: does the opposite of what we want (on FA questions, a reverse logic trap would make the conclusion weaker, not stronger)
ü Irrelevant Distinction or Comparison: makes a distinction or comparison that doesn’t matter between two groups
Evaluate Questions(Ev)
We are asked what additional information would help us to try to determine whether the assumption is valid or invalid. As always, we use the question stem to identify the question type. On Evaluate questions, the question stem will likely contain some form of the word “evaluate,” “determine,” or “useful (or important) to know.”
On Evaluate questions, we’re going to do what we do on all Assumption Family questions:
(1) find the core (conclusion plus major premises), noting this on our scrap paper
(2) brainstorm any assumptions we can
Our goal is to find a “two-path” answer: an answer that can be interpreted in two ways, one of which will strengthen the conclusion and the other of which will weaken the conclusion.
Trap answers will try to get us to make additional assumptions— these answers are actually out of scope— or to make an irrelevant distinction or comparison between two things that are not the focus of the argument’s conclusion.
Note: We’re asked to evaluate whether the existing argument is valid. Don’t be distracted by alternative information and evaluate those.
Flaw Questions(Fl)
We recognize Flaw Questions b y use of the word “flaw” and the absence of any “if true” language. On occasion, the word “flaw” may be replaced by a synonym, such as “vulnerable to criticism.”
On Flaw Questions, we want to find the conclusion and quickly brainstorm any assumptions we can. The correct answer will be tied to an assumption, but it will be worded to highlight the flaw in assuming something to be true; it will hurt the argument. In sum, we can think of Flaw questions as the “reverse” of Assumption questions.
The most common trap answers typically involve making some kind of irrelevant distinction or comparison.
The answer might address something in a premise that doesn’t affect the conclusion, or it may go down a different path entirely when we were asked to comment on a specific plan. Flaw questions may also occasionally use Reverse Logic.
Chap 5 Strengthen and Weaken
Strengthen and Weaken: The Basics
Both Strengthen and Weaken questions ask us to find a new piece of information that, if added to the existing argument, will make the conclusion either somewhat more likely to be true (Strengthen) or somewhat less likely to be true (Weaken). The fact that this information is new, or goes beyond what we already know from the argument, is the major difference between Strengthen and Weaken questions and the three question types we examined in the last chapter.
A Strengthen answer provides us with some new piece of information that does not have to be true, but if true, it does make the conclusion more likely to be valid.
Similarly, a Weaken answer provides us with some new piece of information that does not have to be true but, if true, does make the conclusion a bit less likely to be valid.
As we assess the answers, we’ll label Strengthen answers with an S, Weaken answers with a W, and “nothing” answers with an n.
Strengthen Questions(S)
The question stem will contain “if true” or a close synonym, as well as some form of the word “strengthen” or “support” (or a synonym). We will write down S to indicate that we have a Strengthen question.
On Strengthen questions, our goal is to find a new piece of information that makes the conclusion at least somewhat more likely to be valid.
The most common trap answers include the Reverse Logic trap (weakening the conclusion rather than strengthening it) and the No Tie trap (doesn’t affect the specific conclusion).
Weaken Questions(W)
The question stem will contain “if true” or a close synonym, as well as some form of the words “weaken,” “doubt,” “undermine,” or a synonym. We will write down “W” to indicate that we have a Weaken question.
On Weaken questions, our goal is to attack the conclusion. The correct answer will be a new piece of information that makes the conclusion at least somewhat less likely to be valid.
The most common trap answers include the Reverse Logic trap (strengthening the conclusion rather than weakening it) and the No Tie trap (doesn’t affect the specific conclusion).
NOTE: If a choice is irrelevant to the argument (as choice C was), then it doesn’t matter whether we’re asked to strengthen or weaken the conclusion. An irrelevant choice doesn’t affect the conclusion at all.
EXCEPT Questions(Ex)
Assumption Family questions may also be presented in a “negative” form that is commonly referred to as Except questions. Any of the five Assumption Family question types can be worded as an EXCEPT question. When that happens, the four wrong answers will be formulated in whatever way a right answer would have been written on a normally-worded question of that type. That is:
On EXCEPT questions, we remind ourselves first what the usual goal is for a normal question of that type. The four wrong answers will follow that typical goal, and the right answer will be the “odd one out”— it will NOT do what we typically expect on a normal question of that type. It may reverse logic, or it might have no impact whatsoever on the conclusion.
When writing down the question type, add the designation “Ex” to whatever you normally write down for that question type.
Chap 6 Evidence Family
Inference Questions(In)
Most of the time, inference questions will contain some form of the word “conclude” or “infer,” though other variations are possible. Common synonyms include “assertion” or “hypothesis” in place of “conclusion” or “must be true” in place of “infer.”
Note: percentages vs. real numbers (e.g. actual dollar amounts)
We have to be careful not to mix up Inference and Strengthen questions. Inference questions ask us to use the argument to support an answer. Strengthen questions ask us to use an answer to support the argument.
Inference arguments will not contain conclusions or assumptions, so don’t waste time trying to find conclusions or brainstorm assumptions! (And that lack of a conclusion is another way by which we can distinguish between Inference and Strengthen questions— Inference arguments never have conclusions, and Strengthen arguments always do.)
The correct answer to an inference question must be true according to the information given in the argument. The correct answer does not have to use all of the information given in the argument.
Trap answers will include Real World inferences— they’re reasonable and could be true, but they don’t have to be true. Inference questions also often include Reverse Direction or Switch Terms traps. These traps will often contain language that is very similar to the language in the argument, but the trap will mix up the order of what the argument actually said.
Explain a Discrepancy Questions(ED)
Discrepancy question stems will usually contain the words “explain” or “resolve” as well as the words “if true” (or synonyms).
The argument will consist of premises only; it will not contain a conclusion. The premises will not make sense together. Upon reading the argument, we should think, “Hmm, why would those two things both happen? That doesn’t make sense!”
The correct answer will resolve the discrepancy— that is, the correct answer will show that there really isn’t any discrepancy at all. If we insert the correct answer into the argument, we should be able to say, “Oh, okay, that makes sense now.”
The most common trap answers will try to address something in the argument but will be Out Of Scope in some way. Perhaps the answer will address only one premise and not the other. Perhaps the answer will discuss a group that isn’t at issue or a circumstance that occurred at the wrong time. The trickiest wrong answers of this type will address both premises but won’t go far enough to resolve the discrepancy.
We may also see Reverse Logic trap answers, which will highlight or point out the discrepancy rather than fix it. These can be tricky if we forget that our task is to fix the discrepancy, not point out what the discrepancy is.
Except Questions
As we saw with Assumption Family questions, Evidence Family questions can also be presented in the negative “Except” format. These are more likely to occur on Discrepancy questions than on Inference questions.
Each of the following, if true, could help to explain the surprising finding EXCEPT:
Chap 7 Complete the Argument(CA)
Which of the following best completes the passage below?
Several question types can be written using a Complete the Argument structure, though most CA questions come in the Strengthen or Assumption formats. The CA format will always present an underlined blank in the argument, and there will not be a question stem following the argument.
Our first task is to figure out what kind of question we really have. The presence of the words “since” or “because” immediately before the blank indicate a Strengthen / Assumption-type question. On these, our task will be to find something that supports the argument in some way. Alternatively, if the language before the blank says something similar to “it should be expected that,” then we are looking at an Inference-type CA. Finally, we might be asked to “illustrate” or “provide an example of” something that was discussed in the argument.
Trap answer types will follow the normal patterns for questions of that type; for example, a Strengthen CA will have the usual Strengthen-type traps, and an Inference CA will have the usual Infer-type traps.
Chap 8 Wrong Answer Analysis
Out of Scope
The “scope” refers to what the argument covers.
On Assumption Family and Evaluate a Discrepancy questions, it’s quite common to find answers that talk about the wrong detail (group, activity, action, characteristic, or other detail). The answer may sound as though it is related to the argument, but the details will take that answer out of scope.
A variation on the last trap is the no tie to the conclusion trap, which we see on Strengthen and Weaken questions, and the no tie to the discrepancy trap, which we see on Discrepancy questions. The trap answer does not affect the conclusion or discrepancy at all.
We also often see wrong answer choices that make an irrelevant distinction or comparison; these tend to appear primarily on Assumption Family questions. The argument itself makes absolutely no distinction between A and B students, so why would it be necessary to make a distinction in order to accept the conclusion?
Another type is The real world distraction. This type of answer sounds reasonable to assume in everyday, real-world conversations, but the information does not actually fulfill whatever we’re supposed to be doing for that question type. We have to hold ourselves to the “must be true” standard on an FA question, so a “real world” could-be-true answer is incorrect.
Reverse Logic
Reverse logic traps occur most frequently on Assumption Family and Structure Family questions.
The authors point of view is always the main conclusion.
The Mix Up
The one word off variety most often shows up in Describe the Role, Describe the Argument, and Inference questions.
We also have to be on the alert for the switching terms trap, which occurs most often on Inference and Find the Assumption questions. The answer choice will use actual wording or terminology from the argument, but it will switch terms around or pair things that weren’t actually paired in the argument.
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