在第8章之前我们讲解了削弱题和逻辑题中的因果关系，这为大家理解GMAT逻辑假设题和支持题奠定了基础，因为削弱题和支持题、支持题和假设题之间互有紧密联系。而且三者也有很多共通之处。
Chapter 8 Strengthen and Assumption Question
Support: 6,11,13,14，21,25,32,42,51,53,65,67,68,82,94,100, ,107,109,113,115,119,121，122.
In addition to the Primary Objective, keep these fundamental rules in mind when approaching Strengthen & Assumption questions:
1. The stimulus will contain an argument. Since you are being asked about the author’s reasoning, and reasoning requires a conclusion, an argument will always be present. In order to maximize your chance of success, you should identify, isolate, and assess the premises and the conclusion of the argument. Only by understanding the structure of the argument can you gain the perspective necessary to understand the author’s position.
2. Focus on the conclusion. Almost all correct answer choices impact the conclusion. The more you know about the specifics of the conclusion, the better armed you will be to differentiate the correct and incorrect answers.
3. The information in the stimulus is suspect. There are often reasoning error present, and you must read the argument very carefully in order to know how to shore up the argument.
4. These questions often yield strong prephases. Make sure you actively consider the range of possible answers before proceeding to the answer choices.
5. The answer choices are accept as given, even if they include “new” information. Like Weaken Questions, the answer choices to the problems in this chapter can bring into consideration information outside of or tangential to the stimulus. Just because a fact or idea is not mentioned in the stimulus is not grounds for dismissing an answer choice.
The difference between Strengthen & Assumption Questions
Strengthen Questions ask you to support the argument in any way possible. This type of answer has great range, as the additional support provided by the answer choice could be relatively minor or major. Speaking in numerical terms, any answer choice that strengthens the argument, whether by 1% or 100%, is correct.
只要有一点支持都是对的
Assumption Questions ask you to identify a statement that the argument assumes or supposes. An assumption is simply an unstated premise- what must be true in order for the argument to be true. An assumption can therefore be defined as something that is necessary for the argument to be true.
Assumption可以被认为 是对于论述来说必要的东西， 为了论述是真的。 比support难
Strengthen Questions
The correct answer choice does not necessarily justify the argument, nor is the correct answer choice necessarily an assumption of the argument. The correct answer choice simply helps the argument in someway.
正确的答案不一定使这个论述正确，也不一定是这个论述的假设
正确的答案简单的去帮助这个论述在一些方面，
How to strengthen an argument?
1. Identify the conclusion: This is what you are trying to strengthen!
找出原文中的结论：这就是你要去加强的
When evaluating an answer, ask yourself, “Would this answer choice assist the author in some way?” If so, you have the correct answer.
2. Personalize the argument. 人性化这个论述
3. Look for weaknesses in the argument. 原文中有推理漏洞，找出那个消除这个漏洞的选项换句话说，就是消除原文中的GAP 和hole
If you see a weakness or flaw in the argument, look for an answer that eliminates the weakness. In other words, close any gap or hole in the argument.
Many Strengthen questions require students to find the missing link between a premise and the conclusion. These missing links are assumptions made by the author, and bringing an assumption to light strengthens the argument because it validates part of the author’s thinking. This idea will be discussed further in the Assumption section of the chapter.
4. Arguments contain analogies or use surveys rely upon the validity of those analogies and surveys. Answer choices that strengthen the analogy or survey, or establish their soundness, are usually correct.
Argument 包含类比或调查，这个argument 依赖这个调查和类比的有效性，那个支持这个类比和调查或者建立他们的合理性的选项，通常都是正确的
5. Remember that the correct answer can strengthen the argument just a little or a lot. This variation is what makes these questions difficult.
记住正确答案可以支持argument 哪怕仅仅是一点点，就是这个变化使得问题变难了
Three Incorrect Answer Traps
1. Opposite Answers
Weaken了argument, 因为这个选项和结论有着直接的关系，所以显得非常诱人，预判选项很关键，它可以帮助你迅速排出相反选项
2. Shell Game Answers
在原文中出现的一个idea 或者 一个概念，选项中会出现非常相似的，但是这个观点变化足够使他们是错的，但是还是非常具有迷惑性的。
还有可能： 选项是用来支持一个 和原文观点长的很像，但是略有不同的观点。
3.Out of Scope Answers
无关答案
这三个陷阱不是唯一的，但是是频繁出现的，所以必须熟悉他们
Causality and Strengthen Questions
In strengthen questions, supporting a cause and effect relationship almost always consists of performing one of the following tasks:
1. Eliminate any alternate causes for the stated effect.
排除他因，消除其他原因的可能性也是一种加强。
Because the author believes there is only one cause (the stated cause in the argument), eliminating other possible causes strengthens the conclusion.
2. Show that when the cause occurs, the effect occurs. (This type of answer can appear in the form of an example.)
有因必有果。 这个类型常以一个例子的形式出现
Because the author believes that the cause always produces the effect, any scenario where the cause occurs and the effect follows lends credibility to the conclusion. This type of answer can appear in the form of a example.
3. Show that when the cause does not occur, the effect does not occur.
无因必无果， 作者认为 这个原因必然会导致这个结果。 选项中说 如果这个原因不发生，那么结果也一定不发生。 支持结论; og上蝙蝠那道题;
Using the reasoning in the previous point, any scenario where the cause does not occur and the effect does not occur supports the conclusion. This type of answer also can appear in the form of an example.
4. Eliminate the possibility that the stated relationship is reversed.
因果不颠倒。 消除因果倒置的可能性
Because the author believes that the cause and effect relationship is correctly stated, eliminating the possibility that the relationship is backwards (the claimed effect is actually the cause of the claimed cause) strengthens the conclusion.
5. Show that the data used to make the causal statement are accurate, or eliminate the possible problems with the data.
证明使用的证据或数据是真实有效的 或 排除其无效的可能性(消除数据存在的问题)
If the data used to make a causal statement is in error, then the validity of the causal claim is in question. Any information that eliminates error or reduces the possibility of error will support the argument.
Justify the Conclusion Questions
To solve this type of question, apply the Justify Formula:
Premises + Answer choice = Conclusion
Most Justify the Conclusion question stems typically contain some of the following three features:
1. The stem uses the word “if” or another sufficient condition indicator.
2. The stem uses the phrase “allows the conclusion to be properly drawn” or “enables the conclusion to be properly drawn.”
3. The stem does not lessen the degree of justification.
Because logically proving an argument is a difficult task that requires 100% certainty, only certain types of argumentation tend to appear in Justify stimuli. In fact, most Justify stimuli either use Conditional Reasoning or contain numbers and percentages. Why? Because both forms of reasoning allow for certainty when drawing a conclusion. Consider the following example, which contains conditional reasoning:
Premise: A
Premise: A àB
Conclusion: B
This example can quickly be turned into a Justify the Conclusion question by removing either premise. For example:
Premise: A occurs.
Conclusion: B occurs.
Question: What statement can be added to the argument above to conclude that B must follow?
Answer: Aà B
Or, the other premise could be removed:
Premise: Aà B
Conclusion: B occurs.
Question: What statement can be added to the argument above to conclude that B must follow?
Answer: A occurs.
The mechanistic approach:
In a nutshell, the rules condense to the following: link new elements in the premises and conclusion and ignore elements common to both.
连接前提和结论中不同的部分 并且忽视相同的部分
Assumption Questions
OG: 20,28,43,48,50,58,71,76,78,84,93,95,106,110,112,
assumption应该是在结论之前用来支持结论成立的，用来推导结论。而must be true是在结论之后是被结论和前提一起推导出来的。不论是哪类题目都有一点要求就是must be true。
As mentioned in the previous section, separating Justify the Conclusion questions from Assumption questions can be difficult. Assumption question stems typically contain the following features:
1. The stem uses the word “assumption,” “presupposition,” or some variation.
“Presupposition” is another word for “assumes.” These words are a direct reflection of the task at hand.
2. The stem never uses the word “if” or any other sufficient condition indicator.
Because an assumption is a necessary part of the argument, no sufficient condition indicators can appear in the question stem. The appearance of sufficient condition indicator means that the question is either a Justify or Strengthen question. The stem of an Assumption question will likely contain a necessary condition indicator such as required or unless.
Assumption 没有，结论肯定不成立。 所以他是必要条件，在题干中不会出现条件词，if true等。
Supporter Assumptions & Defender Assumptions
1. Supporter Assumptions: These assumptions link together new or rogue elements in the stimulus or fill logical gaps in the argument.
仔细看结论是否出现新元素：连接原文当中前提与结论或前提与前提之间的新信息或填补 gap。 比较好预测
Alex is very handsome, so girls like him. A: girls like handsome boys
2. Defender Assumptions: These assumptions contain statements that eliminate ideas or assertions that would undermine the conclusion. In this sense, they “defend” the argument by showing that a possible source of attack has been eliminated.
消除对结论产生削弱影响的情况。 不好预测
**如果在原文当中找不出明显的推理弱点，那么有可能就要用假设当中的defender assumption。
The assumption Negation Technique
1. Logically negate the answer choices under consideration.
2. The negate answer choice that attacks the argument will be the correct one.
Note: Do not use the Assumption Negation Technique to all five answer choices. The process is too time-consuming and you can usually knock out a few answer choices without working too hard.
Logical Opposition
Quantity
All = 100
Not All = 0 to 99 (everything but All)
Some = 1 to 100 (everything but None)
None = 0
Other subjects
Always ------not always everywhere-----not everywhere
Sometimes-----never somewhere ------nowhere
Will do----might not do neither nor ----either or
Can not ----could
Three Quirk of Assumption Question Answer Choice
1. Watch for answers starting with the phrase “at least one” or “at least some.”
For some reason, when an Assumption answer choice starts with either of the above constructions the chances are unusually high that the answer will be correct. However, if you spot an answer with that construction, do not simply assume the answer is correct; instead, use the proper negation (“None”) and check the answer with the Assumption Negation Technique.
含有”at least one” 或”at least some”是正确的可能性很高,但是不要一看就选，用取非”none”检验。
2. Avoid answers that claim an idea was the most important consideration for the author.
These answers typically use constructions such as “the primary purpose,” “the top priority,” or “the main factor.” In every Assumption question these answers have been wrong. And, unless, the author specifically discusses the prioritization of ideas in the stimulus, these answers will continue to be wrong because an author can always claim that the idea under discussion was very important but not necessarily the most important idea.
避免选择带有”the primary purpose”, “the top priority”或”the main factor”等宣称是作者最重要观点的词的选项。
3. Watch for the use of “not” or negatives in assumption answer choices.
Because most students are conditioned to think of assumptions as positive connecting elements, the appearance of a negative in an Assumption answer choice often causes the answer to be classified a Loser. Do not rule out a negative answer choice just because you are used to seeing assumptions as a positive part of the argument. As we have seen with Defender answer choices, one role an assumption can play is to eliminate ideas that could attack the argument. To do so, Defender answer choices frequently contain negative terms such as “no,” “not,” and “never.” One benefit of this negative language is that Defender answer choices can usually be negated quite easily.
注意选项中出现”not”不一定是错误答案，反而defender中经常用到not, no, never等否定词。
Assumption and causality
因为作者说 一个事情发生 导致另一个事情发生的时候，作者通常都认为起因是唯一的，并且这个起因一定会导致这个结果。
所以assumption的题通常可以当成带有 因果关系的strengthen 来做
因果类假设与加强做法类似，即：
1) 排除他因
2) 有因必有果
3) 无因必无果
4) 因果不颠倒
5) 使用的证据或数据真实有效 或排除其无效的可能性
Other Question types:
1. Assumption- Fill in the Blank Question
2. Main Point/ Must be True- Fill in the Blank Question
**填空题十有八九都是假设题，剩下就是MUST BE TRUE题或Main Point题
具体看indicator(标志词)来判断：
空格前是since, because ,is that, is the fact that …则是假设题;
空格前是therefore, hence, thus是MUST BE TRUE / Main Point题。
Assumptions and Conditionality
Problems containing conditional reasoning tend to produce two types of assumption answer choices:
1. If conditional statements are linked together in the argument, the correct answer choice for an Assumption question will typically supply a missing link in the chain, as in the following example:
Premises: A->B-> C
Conclusion: A->D
Assumption: C->D (or the contrapositive)
Thus, if you encounter linked statements and an Assumption question, be prepared to supply the missing link or the contrapositive of that link.
2. The assumption underlying a conditional statement is that the necessary condition must occur in order for the sufficient condition to occur. Thus, the author always assumes that any statement that would challenge the truth of the relationship is false. If no conditional chains are present and only a conditional conclusion exists, the correct answer will usually deny scenarios where the sufficient condition occurs and the necessary does not. In other words, the assumption in these arguments always protects the necessary condition (that is, it works as a Defender). If you see a conditional conclusion and then are asked an Assumption question, immediately look for an answer that confirms that the necessary condition is truly necessary or that eliminates possible alternatives to the necessary condition.
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